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NHPC Optometry License Model Questions 2081

NHPC Optometry License Model Questions 2081

Table of Contents (toc)


1. Anatomy & Physiology

Which structure is responsible for producing aqueous humor in the eye?

A) Ciliary body

B) Cornea

C) Retina

D) Choroid

2. Refractive Errors

A patient has a prescription of -3.00 D in both eyes. This indicates:

A) Hyperopia

B) Myopia

C) Presbyopia

D) Astigmatism

3. Ocular Pharmacology

Which of the following drugs is commonly used to dilate the pupil for an eye examination?

A) Timolol

B) Pilocarpine

C) Tropicamide

D) Latanoprost

4. Binocular Vision & Strabismus

A child presents with an eye that consistently turns inward. This condition is known as:

A) Exotropia

B) Esotropia

C) Hypertropia

D) Hypotropia

5. Contact Lenses

Which type of contact lens is most suitable for a patient with keratoconus?

A) Soft spherical lens

B) Hybrid lens

C) Conventional hydrogel lens

D) Scleral lens

6. Glaucoma

The primary goal of glaucoma treatment is to:

A) Increase aqueous humor production

B) Improve retinal circulation

C) Reduce intraocular pressure

D) Enhance optic nerve function

7. Retinal Disorders

Which of the following is a characteristic finding in diabetic retinopathy?

A) Drusen

B) Cotton-wool spots

C) Cherry-red spot

D) Pigmentary changes in the macula

8. Ocular Emergencies

A patient presents with sudden painless loss of vision in one eye. The most likely diagnosis is:

A) Retinal detachment

B) Angle-closure glaucoma

C) Central retinal artery occlusion

D) Optic neuritis

9. Optics & Refraction

Which type of lens corrects hyperopia?

A) Concave lens

B) Convex lens

C) Cylindrical lens

D) Prism lens

10. Visual Field Defects

A lesion in the optic chiasm typically causes:

A) Homonymous hemianopia

B) Bitemporal hemianopia

C) Quadrantanopia

D) Central scotoma

Answers:

1. A) Ciliary body

2. B) Myopia

3. C) Tropicamide

4. B) Esotropia

5. D) Scleral lens

6. C) Reduce intraocular pressure

7. B) Cotton-wool spots

8. C) Central retinal artery occlusion

9. B) Convex lens

10. B) Bitemporal hemianopia

Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease (ASCVD) Score Calculator and Interpretation

Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease (ASCVD) 2025 update

Table of Contents (toc)

Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease (ASCVD) is a condition caused by the
buildup of plaque in the arteries, leading to heart attacks, strokes, and
other cardiovascular complications. It includes diseases such as coronary
artery disease and cerebrovascular disease. Assessing the risk of ASCVD
helps in early prevention and management.


How is ASCVD Risk Calculated?

The Pooled Cohort Equations (PCE) are used to estimate a person’s 10-year
risk of developing ASCVD. The equation considers multiple risk factors,
including:

• Age

• Gender

• Race (White or African American)

• Total Cholesterol (mg/dL)

• HDL Cholesterol (mg/dL)

• Systolic Blood Pressure (mmHg)

• Hypertension Treatment (Yes/No)

• Diabetes Status (Yes/No)

• Smoking Status (Yes/No)

ASCVD Risk Calculation Formula

The PCE formula involves logarithmic calculations of these risk factors
using specific coefficients for different populations. The general structure
of the formula is:

Risk = 1 – S0^(exp(∑(coefficients × ln(risk factors)) –
mean_coefficient))

Where:

  • • S0 = Baseline survival rate
  • • exp = Exponential function
  • • ln = Natural logarithm
  • • ∑(coefficients × ln(risk factors)) = Sum of the coefficients
    multiplied by the natural logarithm of risk factors
  • • mean_coefficient = Mean coefficient for the population group

This formula is used in the Pooled Cohort Equations (PCE) to estimate
10-year ASCVD risk.

The risk score is then categorized as:

  • • Low Risk: <5%
  • • Borderline Risk: 5% – 7.4%
  • • Intermediate Risk: 7.5% – 19.9%
  • • High Risk: ≥20%

Why is ASCVD Risk Assessment Important?

Identifying individuals with an intermediate or high ASCVD risk allows for
early interventions, such as:

• Lifestyle modifications (diet, exercise, quitting smoking)

• Blood pressure and cholesterol management

• Use of statins and other preventive medications

By using this evidence-based approach, healthcare providers can guide
patients toward healthier choices and reduce the risk of cardiovascular
events.

ASCVD Risk Calculator

Male
Female

White
African American

No
Yes

No
Yes

No
Yes

function calculateASCVD(age, gender, race, totalCholesterol, hdlCholesterol, systolicBP, onHypertensionTreatment, hasDiabetes, isSmoker) {
const coefficients = {
male: {
white: { age: 12.344, totalCholesterol: 11.853, hdlCholesterol: -7.990, systolicBP: 1.797, smoker: 7.837, diabetes: 0.658 },
africanAmerican: { age: 2.469, totalCholesterol: 0.302, hdlCholesterol: -0.307, systolicBP: 1.916, smoker: 0.549, diabetes: 0.645 }
},
female: {
white: { age: -29.799, totalCholesterol: 13.540, hdlCholesterol: -13.578, systolicBP: 2.019, smoker: 7.574, diabetes: 0.661 },
africanAmerican: { age: 17.114, totalCholesterol: 0.940, hdlCholesterol: -18.920, systolicBP: 29.291, smoker: 0.691, diabetes: 0.874 }
}
};

const baseline = {
male: { white: { s0: 0.9144, mean: 61.18 }, africanAmerican: { s0: 0.8954, mean: 19.54 } },
female: { white: { s0: 0.9665, mean: -29.18 }, africanAmerican: { s0: 0.9533, mean: 86.61 } }
};

if (!coefficients[gender] || !coefficients[gender][race]) return “Invalid input”;

const coeff = coefficients[gender][race];
const base = baseline[gender][race];

let sum = coeff.age * Math.log(age) +
coeff.totalCholesterol * Math.log(totalCholesterol) +
coeff.hdlCholesterol * Math.log(hdlCholesterol) +
coeff.systolicBP * Math.log(systolicBP) * (onHypertensionTreatment ? 1 : 0) +
(isSmoker ? coeff.smoker : 0) +
(hasDiabetes ? coeff.diabetes : 0);

const risk = 1 – Math.pow(base.s0, Math.exp(sum – base.mean));
return (risk * 100).toFixed(2);
}

function calculateAndDisplayRisk() {
const age = parseInt(document.getElementById(“age”).value);
const gender = document.getElementById(“gender”).value;
const race = document.getElementById(“race”).value;
const totalCholesterol = parseInt(document.getElementById(“totalCholesterol”).value);
const hdlCholesterol = parseInt(document.getElementById(“hdlCholesterol”).value);
const systolicBP = parseInt(document.getElementById(“systolicBP”).value);
const onHypertensionTreatment = document.getElementById(“hypertension”).value === “true”;
const hasDiabetes = document.getElementById(“diabetes”).value === “true”;
const isSmoker = document.getElementById(“smoker”).value === “true”;

if (!age || !totalCholesterol || !hdlCholesterol || !systolicBP) {
document.getElementById(“result”).innerText = “Please fill in all required fields.”;
return;
}

const risk = calculateASCVD(age, gender, race, totalCholesterol, hdlCholesterol, systolicBP, onHypertensionTreatment, hasDiabetes, isSmoker);
let interpretation = “”;

if (risk < 5) interpretation = "Low Risk (<5%)";
else if (risk < 7.5) interpretation = "Borderline Risk (5% – 7.4%)";
else if (risk < 20) interpretation = "Intermediate Risk (7.5% – 19.9%)";
else interpretation = "High Risk (≥ 20%)";

document.getElementById("result").innerHTML = `10-Year ASCVD Risk: ${risk}%
${interpretation}`;
}

NNC License Model Question Set (including NNC Past Questions)

NNC License Model Question Set (including NNC Past Questions)

1. What is the primary role of the NMC Code?

a) To provide legal advice to nurses

b) To guide professional conduct and ensure patient safety

c) To dictate employment contracts

d) To provide medical diagnoses

2. A nurse notices a colleague making a medication error but not reporting it. What should the nurse do first?

a) Ignore the situation

b) Report it to the nursing manager

c) Confront the colleague in public

d) Correct the error without informing anyone

3. Which of the following is the most effective communication technique with a patient experiencing anxiety?

a) Speaking loudly and clearly

b) Providing written instructions only

c) Using a calm tone and active listening

d) Avoiding eye contact

4. A patient refuses treatment based on religious beliefs. What is the nurse’s best response?

a) Force the patient to accept treatment

b) Inform the doctor and respect the patient’s decision

c) Discharge the patient immediately

d) Persuade the patient aggressively 

5. A nurse is administering digoxin. What must be checked before giving the medication?

a) Respiratory rate

b) Blood pressure

c) Heart rate

d) Oxygen saturation

6. A patient reports an allergy to penicillin. The doctor prescribes amoxicillin. What should the nurse do?

a) Administer the medication as prescribed

b) Inform the doctor about the allergy and seek an alternative

c) Give the first dose and observe for a reaction

d) Ignore the patient’s allergy history

7. What is the most effective way to prevent hospital-acquired infections?

a) Wearing gloves at all times

b) Isolating all patients

c) Proper hand hygiene

d) Wearing an N95 mask

8. When should an alcohol-based hand rub be used instead of soap and water?

a) After contact with a patient’s blood

b) When hands are visibly soiled

c) Before and after touching a patient if hands are not visibly dirty

d) After using the restroom

9. What is the normal range of respiratory rate for an adult?

a) 8-12 breaths per minute

b) 12-20 breaths per minute

c) 22-28 breaths per minute

d) 30-40 breaths per minute

10. A patient suddenly becomes unresponsive. What is the first step a nurse should take?

a) Call for help and assess responsiveness

b) Start chest compressions immediately

c) Give oxygen via a mask

d) Check blood sugar levels

11. What is the best approach when caring for a patient with dementia?

a) Speak slowly and use simple sentences

b) Avoid communicating too much

c) Use medical jargon

d) Leave the patient alone most of the time

12. If a nurse suspects elder abuse, what should they do first?

a) Confront the suspected abuser

b) Report concerns to the safeguarding team

c) Ignore the suspicion

d) Ask the patient’s family for permission to report

13. What is an essential skill for effective delegation?

a) Assigning all tasks to junior staff

b) Ensuring the delegated person is competent

c) Avoiding supervision

d) Only delegating administrative tasks

14. A junior nurse is struggling with a task. What should the senior nurse do?

a) Criticize them in front of others

b) Provide guidance and support

c) Ignore the situation

d) Take over the task without explanation

15. What is the best definition of informed consent?

a) The patient agrees to treatment without needing information

b) The patient signs a form without understanding the procedure

c) The patient receives full information before agreeing to treatment

d) The nurse decides what is best for the patient

16. When can a nurse breach patient confidentiality?

a) When a friend asks for information

b) When the information is needed for legal or safety reasons

c) When the patient is famous

d) When a journalist requests details

17. A patient in shock has cold, clammy skin and a weak pulse. What should the nurse do first?

a) Give oral fluids

b) Elevate the patient’s legs and provide oxygen

c) Wait for the doctor

d) Perform a blood test

18. In a choking emergency, what should a nurse do for a conscious adult who cannot speak?

a) Encourage them to drink water

b) Perform abdominal thrusts (Heimlich maneuver)

c) Wait to see if the object clears on its own

d) Perform CPR immediately

19. A pregnant woman at 32 weeks reports severe headaches and swelling. What condition should the nurse suspect?

a) Gestational diabetes

b) Preeclampsia

c) Anemia

d) Hyperthyroidism

20. What is the best way to assess dehydration in an infant?

a) Checking for sunken fontanelles and reduced urine output

b) Measuring heart rate only

c) Checking if the baby cries loudly

d) Observing skin color

Answers

1. b To guide professional conduct and ensure patient safety

2. b  Report it to the nursing manager

3. c Using a calm tone and active listening

4. b Inform the doctor and respect the patients decision

5. c Heart rate

6. b Inform the doctor about the allergy and seek an alternative

7. c Proper hand hygiene

8. c Before and after touching a patient if hands are not visibly dirty

9. b 12-20 breaths per minute

10. a Call for help and assess responsiveness

11. a Speak slowly and use simple sentences

12. b Report concerns to the safeguarding team

13. b Ensuring the delegated person is competent

14. b Provide guidance and support

15. c The patient receives full information before agreeing to treatment

16. b When the information is needed for legal or safety reasons

17. b Elevate the patient’s legs and provide oxygen

18. b Perform abdominal thrusts (Heimlich maneuver)

19. b Preeclampsia

20. a Checking for sunken fontanelles and reduced urine output


ESR and CRP: The acute phase reactants normal values and ESR Vs CRP

ESR and CRP: The acute phase reactants

Table of Contents(toc)


Introduction

ESR vs. CRP: A Comprehensive Guide for Diagnosing Acute and Chronic Inflammation

(ESR, CRP, inflammation, acute, chronic, diagnosis, blood test, healthcare, medical, health)

Understanding ESR and CRP

Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR) and C-reactive protein (CRP) are
two commonly used blood tests to measure inflammation in the
body.
Both tests are valuable tools for diagnosing various conditions, but
they have different characteristics and sensitivities.
 

ESR
measures the rate at which red blood cells settle at the bottom of a
test tube.
A higher ESR can indicate inflammation, infection, or other underlying
health issues.
However, ESR can be affected by factors such as anemia, pregnancy, and
medications.
 

CRP
is a protein produced by the liver in response to
inflammation.
It rises quickly when there’s an inflammatory process in the body,
making it a more sensitive marker for acute
inflammation.
CRP levels tend to return to normal more rapidly than
ESR.
 


When to Use ESR and CRP

Acute Inflammation:

  • CRP:
    Generally preferred due to its faster response time and sensitivity
    to acute inflammatory conditions.
     
  • ESR:
    Can be used as a complementary test, especially when CRP levels are
    borderline or inconclusive.

Chronic Inflammation:

  • ESR:
    May be more useful for assessing chronic inflammatory conditions, as it
    can remain elevated for longer periods.
  • CRP:
    Can also be helpful, especially when monitoring the activity of chronic
    diseases.

Key Differences Between ESR and CRP

  • Sensitivity:
    CRP is generally more sensitive to acute inflammation than
    ESR.
     
  • Specificity:
    Both tests are nonspecific and can be elevated in various
    conditions.
     
  • Response Time:
    CRP levels rise more rapidly in response to inflammation compared to
    ESR.
     
  • Factors Affecting Results:
    ESR can be influenced by factors such as anemia, pregnancy, and
    medications, while CRP is less affected by these factors.

ESR vs CRP table

Feature ESR (Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate) CRP (C-Reactive Protein)
Definition Measures the rate at which red blood cells settle in a tube over one hour. Measures the concentration of CRP, a protein produced by the liver in response to inflammation.
Type of Marker Indirect marker of inflammation. Direct marker of inflammation.
Response Time Slow (takes days to rise and fall). Fast (rises within hours, decreases quickly).
Sensitivity Less sensitive; affected by various factors like age, anemia, pregnancy. More sensitive and specific for inflammation.
Specificity Non-specific (can be elevated in infections, chronic diseases, pregnancy, anemia, etc.). More specific to acute inflammation and infection.
Use in Monitoring Better for tracking chronic inflammatory diseases (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis). Better for detecting and monitoring acute inflammation (e.g., bacterial infections, sepsis).
Affected by Other Factors Yes (age, anemia, pregnancy, plasma protein levels). Less affected by external factors.
Normal Range Varies by age and gender (e.g., ≤20 mm/hr for young adults). Typically <10 mg/L (may vary slightly by lab).
Clinical Relevance Used in conditions like autoimmune diseases, chronic infections, and malignancies. Used in conditions like bacterial infections, sepsis, and cardiovascular risk assessment.

Using ESR and CRP in Clinical Practice

  • Diagnosis:
    Both ESR and CRP can be used to help diagnose various inflammatory
    conditions, including infections, autoimmune diseases, and
    malignancies.
     
  • Monitoring:
    These tests can be used to monitor the course of inflammatory diseases
    and assess the effectiveness of treatment.
  • Screening:
    In some cases, ESR or CRP may be used as a screening tool for certain
    conditions, such as cardiovascular disease.

In conclusion,
ESR and CRP are valuable tools for diagnosing and monitoring
inflammation.
The choice between these tests depends on the specific clinical context,
the nature of the suspected condition, and the desired level of
sensitivity and specificity. It’s often beneficial to consider both tests
in conjunction with other diagnostic evaluations.   

Epidemiological triad, host, environment, agent in Nepali MBBS/MD/MS and PSC in Nepal (video)

Epidemiological triad, host, environment, agent in Nepali MBBS/MD/MS and PSC
in Nepal: Preparation (video)


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How to Check NTC Number Owner Name in 2083?

SIM cards are meant to be personal assets, but in Nepal, we often treat them as interchangeable commodities. Many people using a SIM card for years may not even know under whose name it is registered. This is a concerning issue, and it’s time to address it. Here’s how you can check the owner’s name of an NTC number.

How to Check NTC SIM Ownership?

Before diving into the process of checking the ownership of an NTC SIM card, let’s first discuss an ongoing issue:

The Trend of Passing SIM Cards

Although less common now, passing SIM cards among individuals is still a reality in Nepal. Parents hand them to children, siblings share them, and friends exchange them. In some cases, people even use SIM cards they find on the street—believe it or not!

Why Do People Do This?

There are two main reasons for this trend:

1.Avoiding Hassle:

Acquiring a new SIM card involves paperwork, filling out forms, and providing documents—too much trouble for some. So, they resort to using someone else’s SIM.

2.Saving Money:

While SIM cards are affordable now, this wasn’t always the case. In the early days, they cost several hundred or even over a thousand rupees. Back then, gifting or sharing a SIM card was common. People didn’t care about the registered owner’s name if it meant saving money.

Why You Shouldn’t Do This

It’s clear why you shouldn’t use someone else’s SIM card. Here’s why:

•Identity Misuse:

If the SIM card is registered in someone else’s name, it’s as though you’re impersonating them.

•Legal Risks:

Using a SIM card not registered under your name could land you in trouble, especially if it was previously used for illegal activities. For instance, a SIM card found on the street might belong to someone involved in criminal activities.

Bottom line: Always use a SIM card registered in your own name and check the ownership status if unsure.

How to Check NTC Number Owner’s Name

There are two simple ways to check the ownership of an NTC number:

1. Using USSD Code

USSD codes are special number combinations like *number# that you use to perform various actions (e.g., checking balance or buying data). Here’s how to check the owner’s name of an NTC number using a USSD code:

1.Open the dialer on your phone.

2.Enter *922#.

3.Press call, and you’ll see the registered owner’s information.

2. Using the Nepal Telecom App

Another convenient way to check the NTC number owner’s name is through the Nepal Telecom app. Apps simplify processes, offering multiple functionalities in one place without needing to memorize codes. Follow these steps:

1.Download and open the Nepal Telecom app.

2.Log in to your account (or register if it’s your first time).

3.The name of the SIM owner will be displayed in the top-left corner of the app dashboard.

Other NTC Short Codes

  • *21*Forwarding Number#: Activates call forwarding
  • ##21#: Deactivates call forwarding
  • *43#: Activates call waiting
  • *1442#: Subscribes to add-on packages
  • *400#: Checks your balance
  • *9#: Checks your mobile number

How to Check the NTC Number Owner’s Name: Conclusion

These are the two ways to check the NTC number owner’s name. If the SIM card is registered under your name, great! If not, you should consider transferring the ownership to yourself. Ensuring proper ownership of your SIM card helps avoid potential legal or personal complications.

Vector borne disease research and training centre nepal VBDRTCN

Vector borne disease research and training centre nepal VBDRTCN 2025

Table of Contents(toc)

Vector Borne Disease Research and Training Centre Nepal (VBDRTCN)

  • Introduction

    • Established to combat vector-borne diseases in Nepal.
    • Focuses on research, training, and prevention of diseases like malaria, dengue, and kala-azar.
    • Operates under the Ministry of Health and Population, Nepal.

  • Mission and Objectives

    • Conduct cutting-edge research on vector-borne diseases.
    • Provide training to healthcare professionals and researchers.
    • Develop strategies for effective disease control and prevention.
    • Raise public awareness about vector-borne diseases.

  • Key Activities

    • Research on disease transmission patterns and vectors (e.g., mosquitoes, sandflies).
    • Monitoring and evaluation of vector control programs.
    • Training sessions for medical staff, public health officials, and community workers.
    • Collaborations with national and international organizations for technical and financial support.

  • Disease Focus Areas

    • Malaria: Research on drug resistance, mosquito behavior, and control methods.
    • Dengue: Surveillance and outbreak management strategies.
    • Leishmaniasis (Kala-azar): Treatment advancements and vector studies.
    • Other Diseases: Lymphatic filariasis and Japanese encephalitis.

  • Research and Innovation

    • Developing and testing vector control tools (e.g., insecticides, bed nets).
    • Genetic studies on vectors for understanding resistance mechanisms.
    • Geographic Information System (GIS) mapping for disease surveillance.

  • Challenges

    • Limited resources and funding for comprehensive research.
    • Emerging threats due to climate change and urbanization.
    • Cross-border disease transmission in neighboring regions.

  • Future Goals

    • Strengthen research infrastructure and capacity building.
    • Expand community engagement programs.
    • Integrate digital tools for real-time disease tracking.
    • Foster global partnerships for resource sharing and expertise.

Vector Borne Disease Research and Training Centre Nepal (VBDRTCN)

Vector-borne diseases are a significant public health challenge in Nepal, particularly due to the country’s diverse topography and climatic conditions. To address this pressing issue, the Vector Borne Disease Research and Training Centre Nepal (VBDRTCN) was established as a premier institution dedicated to the prevention, control, and management of diseases such as malaria, dengue, and leishmaniasis (kala-azar).

Advancing Research and Training

VBDRTCN plays a pivotal role in conducting research to understand the behavior, breeding patterns, and distribution of vectors like mosquitoes and sandflies. The insights gained from these studies inform policy-making and public health interventions. The centre also conducts regular training sessions for healthcare professionals, public health workers, and community leaders, equipping them with the knowledge and tools to fight vector-borne diseases effectively.

Key Achievements

Over the years, VBDRTCN has contributed to several breakthroughs in vector control, including the development of insecticide-treated bed nets and the implementation of community-based surveillance programs. Its efforts in monitoring drug resistance in malaria and leishmaniasis have been instrumental in shaping treatment protocols in Nepal.

Collaborations and Challenges

Collaborating with organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO) and research institutions worldwide, VBDRTCN has leveraged technical and financial support to enhance its capacity. However, the centre faces challenges such as limited funding, the threat of emerging diseases due to climate change, and the need for more advanced research infrastructure.

A Vision for the Future

Looking ahead, VBDRTCN aims to expand its research capabilities, integrate digital technologies for real-time disease tracking, and foster greater community involvement in disease prevention. By strengthening global partnerships and investing in innovative solutions, the centre is poised to play an even more significant role in safeguarding the health of Nepalese citizens against vector-borne diseases.

This commitment to excellence makes VBDRTCN a cornerstone in Nepal’s fight against vector-borne diseases, ensuring a healthier and more resilient future for all.

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