Disulfiram like Reaction (disulfiram-like reaction) Mnemonics

Table of Contents(toc)

Introduction

You can use any of the below mnemonics to remember Disulfiram like Reaction (disulfiram-like reaction).

Disulfiram is a drug commonly used to treat alcohol abude and dependance in outpatient and inpatient settings.

capsules disulfiram

How does disulfiram reaction occur?

What are disulfiram reaction symptoms and signs?

Disulfiram UK as Antabuse Agent

Many people want to buy antabuse in UK. They want to terminate their habit of abuse of alcohol and other medications. 

Availability of Disulfiram in the UK

Continue reading Disulfiram like Reaction Easy Mnemonics (Disulfiram-like Reaction) nhpc nmc mec

Introduction of acne

Acne, also known as acne vulgaris is a common skin disease and disorder characterized by muliple lesions in skin. It affects mostly face area but may also affect neck chest and back in severe cases. 

Acne contains both inflammatory or noninflammatory lesions spread around that area. 

Acne mostly affects ‘pilosebaceous units’ you which is the name for ‘hair follicles’. 

Acne affects above mentioned area because these areas contain most of the oil glands. 

Pathophysiology of acne scars

Acne scars are generally formed after inflammation due acne bacterial infections. 

These infections occur in hair follicles by bacteria named Cutibacterium acnes. 

The inflammation can be subsided using steroids or other anti-inflammatory medications.

But this is not our goal in this article. Rather we will deal regarding subsiding inflammation without use of modern medicine and chemical.

We will deal with acne and acne scars in a natural way. 

Steps of getting rid of acne scars naturally 

You can follow these steps to get rid of acne scars naturally.

1. Do not get acne:
2. Yes you didn’t expect this in first but this is what we should do if we never wabt scars. 
3. Read below for details on acne prevention. 
4. Treat acne on time.

Acne, also known as acne vulgaris, is a prevalent skin condition affecting millions worldwide. It is characterized by the appearance of multiple lesions on the skin, which may vary in size, type, and severity. While acne primarily affects the facial area, it can extend to other regions such as the neck, chest, and back, especially in severe cases. The condition can be distressing, not just because of its physical appearance but also due to the discomfort and potential for scarring it causes.

Types of Acne Lesions

Acne lesions can be broadly classified into two types: inflammatory and non-inflammatory. Non-inflammatory lesions include comedones, which are further divided into open (blackheads) and closed (whiteheads) comedones. Inflammatory lesions, on the other hand, encompass papules, pustules, nodules, and cysts, which often lead to redness, swelling, and discomfort in the affected areas.

Why Acne Occurs in Specific Areas

Acne predominantly affects regions rich in oil glands, such as the face, neck, chest, and back. These areas contain what is known as pilosebaceous units, a term used to describe hair follicles and their associated sebaceous (oil) glands. These glands produce sebum, an oily substance that helps lubricate and protect the skin. However, excessive sebum production, combined with dead skin cells and bacterial growth, can clog these follicles, leading to acne.

Understanding Acne Scars

Acne scars are a common aftermath of inflammatory acne. These scars form due to damage to the skin tissue caused by severe inflammation and infections within the hair follicles. The bacteria responsible for this inflammation is called Cutibacterium acnes (previously known as Propionibacterium acnes). When the body attempts to heal these inflamed areas, it produces collagen to repair the damage. If too much or too little collagen is produced, scars can form.

Managing Inflammation in Acne

One of the critical steps in preventing acne scars is managing inflammation effectively. Steroids and other anti-inflammatory medications are often prescribed to reduce redness and swelling. However, some individuals prefer to explore natural methods to address inflammation and prevent scarring.

Natural Ways to Address Acne and Acne Scars

While modern medicine offers numerous solutions, some people opt for natural approaches to manage acne and reduce the risk of scarring. Below are some steps and tips to tackle acne scars naturally:

1. Prevent Acne from Occurring Prevention is always better than cure. To avoid scars, it is essential to prevent acne in the first place. This involves adopting a skincare routine that includes cleansing, exfoliating, and moisturizing appropriately. Maintaining a healthy diet, managing stress, and staying hydrated can also help keep acne at bay.   acne scar treatment  
2. Timely Treatment of Acne If acne does occur, it is crucial to treat it promptly. Delaying treatment increases the risk of severe inflammation, which can lead to scarring. Natural remedies such as tea tree oil, aloe vera, and honey may help reduce mild acne.
3. Avoid Picking or Popping Pimples Picking or popping pimples can worsen inflammation and lead to permanent scarring. Allowing the skin to heal naturally or seeking professional help is always recommended.
4. Use Natural Anti-Inflammatory Remedies Natural ingredients such as turmeric (known for its anti-inflammatory properties), green tea, and chamomile can help reduce redness and swelling. These can be applied topically or consumed as part of a balanced diet.
5. Exfoliate Gently Gentle exfoliation with natural scrubs like oatmeal or sugar can help remove dead skin cells, promoting the growth of new, healthy skin. Over-exfoliation, however, should be avoided as it can irritate the skin.
6. Hydrate and Protect the Skin Keeping the skin well-hydrated is essential for its overall health. Using natural moisturizers like aloe vera gel or coconut oil can help maintain the skin’s moisture barrier. Additionally, wearing sunscreen protects the skin from harmful UV rays, which can worsen scars.
7. Apply Natural Scar Remedies Natural ingredients like rosehip oil, vitamin E, and shea butter are known for their scar-healing properties. Regular application can help fade scars over time.

By following these natural steps, you can manage acne and its scars effectively without relying on chemical treatments. Consistency and patience are key, as natural remedies often take time to show noticeable results.

Whole body checkup: What tests to perform?

Introduction

Some people clain that full body checkup is necessary but some people/doctors recommend against it because it adds unnecessary burden, financial cost and may even keep people in panic even with slightest variation of the results.

ECG with heart icon whole body checkup

Continue reading Whole body checkup: The pros and cons of health package tests

नेपालमा स्वास्थ्य बिमा Health insurance in Nepal

Swasthya bima? K ho swasthya bima? Health insurance in nepal स्वास्थ्य विमा नेपाल

What is Health insurance? स्वास्थ्य वीमा  के हो?

Healh insurance is a insurance system that covers medical expenses in complete or patly. Just like other type of insurances part of it is taken by individuals. स्वास्थ्य वीमाले उपचार गर्दा लाग्ने खर्च पूर्ण वा आंशिकरुमा वेहोर्छ। र सो को लगानि आंसिक रुपमा व्यक्तिहरुले वेहोर्छन।

के नेपालमा स्वास्थ्य वीमा उपलव्ध छ? Is health insurance available in Nepal

छ। नेपालमा विभिन्न कम्पनि तथा संस्थाले यो सुबिधा दिईरहेका छन। 

नेपालमा स्वास्थ्य वीमा बोर्ड बारे जानकारी: About health insurance board Nepal 

स्वास्थ्य बीमा कार्यक्रम स्वास्थ्य सेवा उपयोगको क्रममा हुने अनियोजित खर्चको जोखिमलाई अग्रीम ब्यबस्थापन गर्दै बित्तीय संरक्षण प्रदान गर्ने अवधारणा अन्तर्गत सरकारले ल्याएको सामाजिक सुरक्षाको एक महत्वपूर्ण कार्यक्रम हो । समस्त नेपाली नागरिकलाई सर्वसुलभ रुपमा गुणस्तरीय स्वास्थ्य सेवा प्रदान गर्न र स्वास्थ्य सेवा उपभोगमा सुधार ल्याउनका लागि सामाजिक स्वास्थ्य बीमाको आधारमा सबैका लागि स्वास्थ्य सेवा सुनिश्चित गर्ने उद्देश्यका साथ २०७२ सालमा सामाजिक स्वास्थ्य सुरक्षाका रुपमा शुरुवात भएको यो कार्यक्रम हाल स्वास्थ्य बीमा बोर्डलेसंचालन गर्दै आएको छ ।

यस कार्यक्रमले सर्वव्यापी स्वास्थ्यको पहुँत्र (Universal Health Coverage, UHC) प्राप्ती तर्फ नेपाललाई अग्रसर बनाउँदै सन् २०३० सम्ममा दिगो विकास लक्ष्य प्राप्त गर्न महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका खेल्ने आशा लिएको छ ।

नेपालमा वीमा संबन्धि नीतिगत व्यवस्था: provision of insurance in laws of Nepal

नेपालको संविधानले आधारभूत स्वास्थ्य सेवालाई निशुल्क र सामाजिक सुरक्षाको हक प्रदान गरेको छ । बर्तमान संबिधानको धारा ५१(ज) मा नागरिकका आधारभूत आवश्यकता सम्बन्धी नीति अन्तर्गत नागरिकको स्वास्थ्य बीमा सुनिश्चित गर्दै स्वास्थ्य उपचारमा पहुँचको व्यवस्था मिलाउने उल्लेख छ । गुणस्तरीय स्वास्थ्य सेवा प्राप्त गर्ने नागरिकको अधिकारको संरक्षण गर्न, स्वास्थ्य बीमाद्वारा पूर्व भुक्तानीको माध्यमबाट बीमितको आर्थिक जोखिम न्यूनीकरण गर्न तथा स्वास्थ्य सेवा प्रदायकको दक्षता र जवाफदेहीता अभिवृद्धि गरी स्वास्थ्य सेवामा आम नागरिकको सहज पहुँच सुनिश्चित गर्न स्वास्थ्य बीमा ऐन २०७४ जारी भइसकेको छ ।

स्वास्थ्य बीमा नियमावली २०७५

यस कार्यलाई थप ब्यबस्थित गर्न स्वास्थ्य बीमा नियमावली २०७५ समेत पारित हुनु स्वास्थ्य बीमा कार्यक्रमकोलागि एउटा महत्वपूर्ण खुट्किलो हो । यस नियमावलीले हालको सुविधाको थैलीलाई दुइ गुणाले वृद्धि गनुकोसाथै ज्येष्ठ नागरिकको लागि सरकारलेनै बीमा प्रिमियम तिरिदिनेगरी छुट्टै एकाइको रुपमा वार्षिक रु एक लाख बराबरको स्वास्थ बीमाको व्यवस्था गरिएको छ । साथै, संम्पुर्ण संगठित क्षेत्रलाई आम्दानीको एक प्रतिशत योगदान गर्नेगरी बीमामा आबद्ध हुने अनिवार्य व्यवस्था गरिएको छ ।स्वास्थ्य बीमा कार्यक्रम स्वास्थ्य सेवा उपयोगको क्रममा हुने अनियोजित खर्चको जोखिमलाई अग्रीम ब्यबस्थापन गर्दै बित्तीय संरक्षण प्रदान गर्ने अवधारणा अन्तर्गत सरकारले ल्याएको सामाजिक सुरक्षाको एक महत्वपूर्ण कार्यक्रम हो ।

समस्त नेपाली नागरिकलाई सर्वसुलभ रुपमा गुणस्तरीय स्वास्थ्य सेवा प्रदान गर्न र स्वास्थ्य सेवा उपभोगमा सुधार ल्याउनका लागि सामाजिक स्वास्थ्य बीमाको आधारमा सबैका लागि स्वास्थ्य सेवा सुनिश्चित गर्ने उद्देश्यका साथ २०७२ सालमा सामाजिक स्वास्थ्य सुरक्षाका रुपमा शुरुवात भएको यो कार्यक्रम हाल स्वास्थ्य बीमा बोर्डलेसंचालन गर्दै आएको छ । यस कार्यक्रमले सर्वव्यापी स्वास्थ्यको पहुँत्र (Universal Health Coverage, UHC) प्राप्ती तर्फ नेपाललाई अग्रसर बनाउँदै सन् २०३० सम्ममा दिगो विकास लक्ष्य प्राप्त गर्न महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका खेल्ने आशा लिएको छ ।

संविधानमा स्वास्थ्यको अधिकार र व्यवस्था right to health in constitution

नेपालको संविधानले आधारभूत स्वास्थ्य सेवालाई निशुल्क र सामाजिक सुरक्षाको हक प्रदान गरेको छ । बर्तमान संबिधानको धारा ५१(ज) मा नागरिकका आधारभूत आवश्यकता सम्बन्धी नीति अन्तर्गत नागरिकको स्वास्थ्य बीमा सुनिश्चित गर्दै स्वास्थ्य उपचारमा पहुँचको व्यवस्था मिलाउने उल्लेख छ ।

गुणस्तरीय स्वास्थ्य सेवा प्राप्त गर्ने नागरिकको अधिकारको संरक्षण गर्न, स्वास्थ्य बीमाद्वारा पूर्व भुक्तानीको माध्यमबाट बीमितको आर्थिक जोखिम न्यूनीकरण गर्न तथा स्वास्थ्य सेवा प्रदायकको दक्षता र जवाफदेहीता अभिवृद्धि गरी स्वास्थ्य सेवामा आम नागरिकको सहज पहुँच सुनिश्चित गर्न स्वास्थ्य बीमा ऐन २०७४ जारी भइसकेको छ । 

यस कार्यलाई थप ब्यबस्थित गर्न स्वास्थ्य बीमा नियमावली २०७५ समेत पारित हुनु स्वास्थ्य बीमा कार्यक्रमकोलागि एउटा महत्वपूर्ण खुट्किलो हो ।

यस नियमावलीले हालको सुविधाको थैलीलाई दुइ गुणाले वृद्धि गनुकोसाथै ज्येष्ठ नागरिकको लागि सरकारलेनै बीमा प्रिमियम तिरिदिनेगरी छुट्टै एकाइको रुपमा वार्षिक रु एक लाख बराबरको स्वास्थ बीमाको व्यवस्था गरिएको छ । साथै, संम्पुर्ण संगठित क्षेत्रलाई आम्दानीको एक प्रतिशत योगदान गर्नेगरी बीमामा आबद्ध हुने अनिवार्य व्यवस्था गरिएको छ ।

(नोट: विमा बोर्डको वेवसाइटबाट साभार)

Health insurance schedule in Nepal

Time of registration for health insurance and service activation date

insurance start time

Health insurance board website hib.gov.np

Laws regarding health and health insurance in Nepal नेपालमा स्वास्थ्य र स्वास्थ्य वीमा संबन्धि कानुन र नीतिहरु!

नेपालमा स्वास्थ्य र स्वास्थ्य वीमा संबन्धि प्रसस्त कानुन हरु बनेका छन! यिनिहरु तलको लिंकबाट डाउनलोड गर्न सकिन्छ।
लिंक: डाउनलोड लिंक

स्वास्थ्य बीमा कार्यक्रममा सदस्यता दर्ता र सेवा सुरु हुने मिति

सदस्यता दर्ता                 सेवा सुरुहुने मिति         सेवा समाप्त हुने मिति

बैशाख, जेठ, असार         भदौ १ गते                         अर्को बर्षको साउन मसान्त सम्म

साउन, भदौ, असोज         मसिर १ गते                 अर्को बर्षको कार्तिक मसान्त सम्म

कार्तिक, मसिर, पौष         फागुन १ गते                 अर्को बर्षको माघ मसान्त सम्म

Health insurance act nepal 2074 free download pdf  स्वास्थ्य बिमा ऐन नेपाल २०७४ डाउनलोड फ्री

किड्नि ट्रान्सप्लान्ट गरेका बिरामिले के गर्ने के नगर्ने Self-Care Guide After Kidney Transplant?

किड्नि ट्रान्सप्लान्ट गरेका बिरामिले के गर्ने के नगर्ने?

पढ्नुहोस्:

Self-Care Guide After Kidney Transplant

1) Managing Cholesterol and Blood Pressure:

Effective management of cholesterol and blood pressure is essential after a kidney transplant. Elevated cholesterol and blood pressure can lead to complications, so it is important to:

• Follow a healthy diet as advised by your doctor.
• Engage in regular physical activity as recommended by your healthcare provider.
• Take prescribed medications as directed.

2) Quitting Smoking:

Smoking exacerbates conditions like heart disease, cancer, and lung diseases, and it can also reduce the function of your transplanted kidney over time. It is crucial to quit smoking and avoid alcohol for optimal transplant outcomes.

3) Weight Management:

After a kidney transplant, weight gain can occur due to medication side effects. Managing your weight is vital for your overall health and kidney function.

a) What happens if your weight increases?

Excess weight can lead to obesity, which increases the risk of heart disease and other complications, potentially affecting your kidney transplant’s success.

b) How to maintain a healthy weight?

Work with your healthcare provider or dietitian to maintain a healthy weight through proper dietary choices and exercise. Adjusting calorie intake and following a balanced exercise regimen are essential.

4) Cancer Risks:

Kidney transplant recipients have a higher risk of developing cancer, particularly due to immunosuppressive medications. It’s important to:

• Follow regular cancer screenings and medical advice.
• Be vigilant about skin cancer, especially if you have fair skin and are frequently exposed to the sun.

a) Skin Cancer Risks:

Excessive sun exposure can increase the risk of skin and lip cancer, especially after a transplant. Use sunscreen and avoid long sun exposure. Regularly check your skin for unusual changes, and consult your doctor if you notice any growths or sores.

5) Bone Health:

Post-transplant, bone density may decrease, making bones more fragile. Regular weight-bearing exercises, calcium, and vitamin D supplementation may help prevent bone-related issues.

a) How to minimize bone-related risks?

Regular exercise, proper nutrition, and monitoring of bone health through medical consultations can help maintain bone strength. If needed, your healthcare provider might suggest additional medications.

6) Gout (Uric Acid Management):

Kidney transplant recipients may face challenges in excreting uric acid, which can lead to gout. Certain medications can increase uric acid levels, making it important to manage these carefully.

a) How to manage elevated uric acid levels?

Follow your doctor’s advice on medications and avoid foods that can elevate uric acid levels, such as red meat, shellfish, alcohol, and sugary foods. Regularly check your blood levels to ensure proper management.

7) Sexual Health and Fertility:

a) Impact of kidney transplant on sexual activity?

Most kidney transplant recipients can resume normal sexual activity, but some may experience difficulties due to the underlying disease or medications. It’s important to discuss any concerns with your doctor.

b) Can kidney transplant affect pregnancy?

Pregnancy is possible post-transplant, but it requires careful planning and consultation with your doctor. Fertility and pregnancy outcomes vary, and your healthcare provider will guide you based on your health status.

c) Breastfeeding after kidney transplant?

Breastfeeding is possible but may require special considerations depending on the medications you are taking. Discuss with your healthcare provider for advice on breastfeeding and your baby’s health.

8) Mental Health:

It’s common to experience stress, anxiety, and emotional changes after a kidney transplant. Monitoring your mental health is as important as physical health.

a) Causes of anxiety and stress?

Factors such as transplant-related stress, medication side effects, and concerns about your health can contribute to anxiety. Regular emotional support and counseling are beneficial in managing these feelings.

b) What to do if experiencing anxiety or depression?

Reach out to your healthcare provider or a mental health professional for guidance. Timely support can help reduce stress and improve overall well-being.

9) Healthy Lifestyle:

Adopting a healthy lifestyle is crucial for maintaining kidney health and preventing further complications.

a) How to maintain a healthy lifestyle?

• Follow a balanced diet and stay active with regular physical exercise.
• Manage stress and practice mindfulness techniques.
• Maintain a healthy weight and take medications as prescribed.
• Avoid smoking and limit alcohol consumption.

This guide offers essential tips for maintaining your health after a kidney transplant. Remember to consult with your healthcare team for personalized advice and recommendations tailored to your specific needs.

भिडियो:

Alcohol and Alcoholic Liver Disease Notes: A Guide for Medical Students : NHPC, NNC and NMC

Introduction

Alcohol Metabolism and Liver Vulnerability

When alcohol is consumed, it is primarily metabolized in the liver through the following pathways:

1. Alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH): Converts ethanol to acetaldehyde, a highly toxic compound.
2. Aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH): Converts acetaldehyde to acetate, which is further metabolized into water and carbon dioxide.
3. Microsomal ethanol oxidizing system (MEOS): Involved during chronic alcohol use, leading to increased oxidative stress.

These processes generate free radicals and promote inflammation, both of which damage hepatocytes over time.

Fatty Liver Disease (Alcoholic Steatosis)

Definition: Fatty liver disease is the earliest and most reversible stage of ALD, characterized by excessive fat accumulation within hepatocytes.

Pathophysiology:

• Alcohol increases lipogenesis and reduces fatty acid oxidation.
• Impaired secretion of very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) exacerbates fat accumulation.

Clinical Features:

• Often asymptomatic.
• Some patients may report fatigue, malaise, or mild right upper quadrant discomfort.

Diagnosis:

• Laboratory Tests: Mild elevation of liver enzymes (AST > ALT, usually < 300 IU/L).
• Imaging: Ultrasound shows hyperechoic liver (“bright liver”).
• Liver Biopsy: Confirms diagnosis if needed.

Management:

• Complete abstinence from alcohol.
• Nutritional support and management of coexisting conditions like obesity.

Alcoholic Hepatitis

Definition: An acute inflammatory condition of the liver due to prolonged heavy alcohol consumption.

Pathophysiology:

• Persistent alcohol use triggers cytokine release (e.g., TNF-α, IL-6), leading to hepatocyte necrosis.
• Inflammation exacerbates oxidative stress and fibrosis.

Clinical Features:

• Symptoms: Jaundice, fever, anorexia, weight loss, and right upper quadrant pain.
• Signs: Hepatomegaly, ascites, encephalopathy in severe cases.

Diagnosis:

• Laboratory Tests:
  • Elevated liver enzymes (AST > ALT, typically in a ratio of ~2:1).
  • Elevated bilirubin and prolonged prothrombin time.
• Imaging: Excludes other causes of liver disease.
• Liver Biopsy: May show ballooned hepatocytes, Mallory-Denk bodies, and neutrophilic infiltration.

Management:

• Alcohol Abstinence: Essential for prognosis improvement.
• Nutritional Therapy: High-protein, calorie-dense diet.
• Medications: Corticosteroids or pentoxifylline in severe cases.

Liver Cirrhosis

Definition: End-stage liver disease characterized by irreversible fibrosis and regenerative nodules.

Pathophysiology:

• Chronic inflammation and hepatocyte injury lead to excessive collagen deposition and distortion of normal liver architecture.

Clinical Features:

• Symptoms: Fatigue, jaundice, pruritus, abdominal distension.
• Signs: Spider angiomas, palmar erythema, gynecomastia, splenomegaly, and ascites.
• Complications: Portal hypertension, variceal bleeding, hepatic encephalopathy, hepatocellular carcinoma.

Diagnosis:

• Laboratory Tests: Decreased albumin, elevated bilirubin, prolonged prothrombin time.
• Imaging: Ultrasound or CT showing nodular liver.
• Transient Elastography (FibroScan): Assesses liver stiffness.
• Liver Biopsy: Confirms diagnosis if required.

Management:

• Alcohol Abstinence: Prevents further progression.
• Management of Complications:
  • Beta-blockers for variceal bleeding prophylaxis.
  • Diuretics and paracentesis for ascites.
  • Lactulose for hepatic encephalopathy.
• Liver Transplantation: Definitive treatment for decompensated cirrhosis.

Preventive Strategies

• Public Health Initiatives: Raising awareness about safe alcohol consumption limits.
• Screening and Early Intervention: Routine liver function tests in at-risk populations.
• Lifestyle Modification: Encouraging healthy diet, exercise, and abstinence from alcohol.

Conclusion

Alcoholic liver disease is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Early recognition and intervention are crucial in preventing progression from reversible fatty liver to irreversible cirrhosis. As future medical professionals, understanding ALD’s pathophysiology, clinical features, and management is essential for providing comprehensive patient care and promoting liver health.

Download the Syllabus for Licensing Examination of
B.Sc. MLT/ BMLT
2025

Nepal Health Professional Council

Bansbari, Kathmandu

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Table of Contents

S.N.	Topic	Marks
1	Medical Microbiology	20%
2	Clinical Biochemistry	20%
3	Hematology & Blood Banking	20%
4	Histocytopathology	15%
5	Human Anatomy and Physiology	10%
6	Health Policy & Health System of Nepal	5%
7	Research Methodology and Biostatistics	5%
8	Clinical Pharmacology	3%
9	NHPC and Code of Ethics	2%
Total	100%

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1. Medical Microbiology

1.1 Bacteriology

1. Historical background, scope, importance, branches, and applications of microbiology.
2. Safety measures, infection control practices, and biomedical waste disposal.
3. Importance and applications of sterilization and disinfection.
4. Composition, preparation, storage, uses, types, and quality control of culture media.
5. Techniques and applications of different staining procedures.
6. Antimicrobial drugs, their modes of action, antimicrobial susceptibility tests, drug resistance evaluation, and detection.
7. Organization, management, and quality control of microbiology laboratories for district and zonal hospitals.
8. Collection, transport, preservation, and processing of different clinical specimens for aerobic, microaerophilic, and anaerobic culture.
9. Taxonomy, morphology, metabolism, cultural characteristics, pathogenesis, laboratory diagnosis, prevention, and control of clinically important bacteria:
   • Aerobic and anaerobic Gram-positive cocci
   • Gram-negative cocci
   • Aerobic and anaerobic Gram-negative bacilli
   • Gram-positive bacilli
   • Other Gram-variable bacteria
10. Epidemiology, transmission, pathogenesis, laboratory diagnosis, prevention, and control of systemic infectious diseases.
11. Investigation and control of community outbreaks and hospital-associated outbreaks, including epidemiological markers.
12. Care, handling, and use of laboratory animals in microbiological investigations.
13. Rapid diagnosis of infectious diseases using conventional and molecular techniques.

1.2 Parasitology

1. Taxonomy, classification, morphology, life cycle, pathogenesis, laboratory diagnosis, prevention, and control of Protozoal and Helminthic parasites.
2. Collection and preservation of clinical specimens for parasitic investigations.
3. Urine routine analysis and special tests.
4. Semen analysis and interpretation.
5. Stool analysis using various techniques.
6. Parasitic culture and egg-counting techniques.
7. Blood parasites and their laboratory diagnosis.

1.3 Virology

1. Morphology, taxonomy, replication, culture techniques, pathogenesis, laboratory diagnosis, prevention, and control of clinically important viruses.
2. Virus culture techniques:
   • Biological host
   • Embryonated egg inoculation
   • Cell culture
3. Emerging and re-emerging viruses.
4. Development, standardization, and use of vaccines and antisera.

1.4 Mycology

1. Taxonomy, classification, morphology, cultural characteristics, pathogenesis, laboratory diagnosis, prevention, and control of clinically important yeasts and molds.
2. Mycological procedures for identifying molds and yeasts.

1.5 Immunology

1. Structure, organization, function, and disorders of the human immune system.
2. Principles, procedures, and applications of immunological techniques.

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2. Clinical Biochemistry

2.1 Fundamentals of Biochemistry

1. Glasswares: Types, uses, and cleaning methods.
2. Chemical kinetics and reaction mechanisms.
3. Acid-base homeostasis, buffers, and blood gas analysis.
4. Analytical methods and instrumentation.
5. Enzymes and their classification.
6. Safety measures in biochemistry laboratories.
7. Quality management of biochemistry laboratories.

2.2 Nutritional Biochemistry

1. Structure, classification, and biological significance of carbohydrates, proteins/amino acids, lipids, and nucleic acids.
2. Synthesis, function, and measurement of vitamins and minerals.

2.3 Metabolism

1. Carbohydrate metabolism: Glycolysis, Glycogenesis, Glycogenolysis, Pentose phosphate pathway, Krebs cycle, Gluconeogenesis.
2. Protein metabolism: Transamination, deamination, urea cycle, nitrogen balance, creatinine formation.
3. Lipid metabolism: Alpha, beta, gamma oxidation, ketosis, and ketone body formation.
4. Nucleotide metabolism: Purine and pyrimidine biosynthesis and regulation.
5. Inborn errors of metabolism.

2.4 Organ Function Tests

1. Liver, cardiac, pancreas, renal, and gastric function tests.
2. Biochemistry of different body fluids.

2.5 Endocrinology

1. Synthesis, functions, and metabolic disorders of hormones.
2. Laboratory measurement of hormones using different methods.

2.6 Molecular Biology

1. Basics of cellular and molecular biology.
2. Cancer biology and tumor markers.
3. Recent advances in clinical biochemistry.

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3. Hematology and Transfusion Medicine

1. Blood collection techniques.
2. Hematopoietic system and blood composition.
3. Hemoglobin synthesis, structure, and composition.
4. Anemia: Definition, classification, and laboratory approaches for diagnosis.
5. Leukemia: Definition, classification, and laboratory diagnosis.
6. Routine hematological tests: Hemoglobin estimation, total RBC/WBC count, platelet count, etc.
7. Special hematological tests: Plasma hemoglobin, Antihuman globulin test, etc.
8. Routine and special stains for blood and bone marrow smears.
9. Principles and applications of flow cytometry and Coulter counters.
10. Hemoparasites and laboratory diagnosis.
11. Hemostasis and fibrinolysis.
12. Transfusion medicine and blood banking techniques.

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4. Histopathology and Cytopathology

1. Basic and systemic pathology.
2. Preparation of fixatives and tissue processing.
3. Microtomy techniques and error handling.
4. FNAC and fluid cytology.
5. Preparation of histological and cytological stains.
6. Immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence.

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5. Human Anatomy and Physiology

1. Organization and structure of human cells, tissues, organs, and systems.
2. Endocrinology and hormone regulation.
3. Mechanism of organ system regulation.

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6. Health Policy and Health System of Nepal

1. Overview of health systems and policies in Nepal.
2. Evolution of health services and laboratory services in Nepal.
3. National Health Policy and health service delivery mechanisms.
4. National health programs and major health sector partners.

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7. Research Methodology and Biostatistics

1. Description of research types and tools.
2. Central tendency and dispersion measures.
3. Correlation and regression analysis.
4. Sampling theories and hypothesis testing.

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8. Pharmacology

1. Basics of pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics.
2. Drugs affecting renal, liver, lipid, and blood glucose parameters.
3. Overview of antimicrobials.

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9. NHPC and Code of Ethics

1. Ethical codes for medical laboratory professionals.
2. Duties of registered practitioners.
3. Medico-legal procedures and laboratory tests.

What is Eye Flu?
How to treat Eye Flu?

Introduction

Eye flu

What is Conjunctivitis?

Conjunctival inflammation characterized by hyperemia associated with
discharge that may be watery, mucoid, mucopurulent or purulent.

Symptoms of eye infection (conjunctivitis)

1. Red conjunctiva , fiery red eye
2. Chemosis (swelling of conjunctiva)
3. Hemorrhages (small bleeding)
4. Flakes of discharge
5. Matted or sticky cilia or hair
6. Edematous eyelids

What causes red eye, eye flu or conjunctivitis

1. Infective

1. Bacterial
2. Viral
3. Fungal
4. Chlamydial

Allergic (Not infection)

1. Atopic
2. Vernal
3. Contact

Cicatricial (Not infection)

1. Pemphigoid
2. SJS

Toxic or chemical (Not infection)

1. Due to harmful irritant chemicals

bacterial vs viral vs allergic conjunctivitis

– संक्रामक  

  – ब्याक्टेरियल  

  – भाइरल  

  – फंगल  

  – क्ल्यामाइडियल  

– एलर्जिक (संक्रमण होइन)  

  – एटोपिक  

  – भर्नल  

  – सम्पर्कजन्य  

– सिक्राट्रिसियल (संक्रमण होइन)  

  – पेम्फिगोइड  

  – एसजेएस (स्टीभेन्स-जोन्सन सिन्ड्रोम)  

– विषाक्त वा रासायनिक (संक्रमण होइन)  

  – हानिकारक उत्तेजक रसायनहरूको कारण  

Names of the bacteria that can cause eye fly or conjunctivitis?

1. S aureus
2. S epidermidis
3. Strep pneumoniae
4. Strep pyogens
5. H influenzae
6. N gonorrhoeae
7. N meningitidis

Names of the viruses that can cause eye fly or conjunctivitis?

1. Adenovirus
2. HSV
3. Pox virus
4. Myxovirus
5. Paramyxovirus
6. Arbovirus

Causes of eye infection eye flu / Risk factors

1. Poor hygiene
2. Flies
3. Lack of clean water
4. Hot climate
5. Not handwashing properly
6. Close contact with people with innfection without proper care
7. Not washing hands and face time to time
8. Immune compromised state

• खराब सरसफाइ
• झिंगा
• सफा पानीको अभाव
• तातो मौसम
• हात राम्रोसँग नधुने
• संक्रमण भएका व्यक्तिहरूसँग उचित हेरचाह बिना नजिकको सम्पर्क
• समय समयमा हात र मुख नधुने
• कमजोर प्रतिरक्षा अवस्था

How to know bacterial vs viral vs allergic conjunctivitis

Continue reading Red eye cause and treatment in Nepali- Eye Flu: रातो आखाँ हुने कारण र उपचार नेपालीमा २०२५

Multiple-choice questions (MCQs) related to diarrhea and dehydration NNC and NHPC

ANSWERS TO DIARRHEA AND DEHYDRATION MCQ

Question 1: What is the primary cause of diarrhea?

A) Excessive water intake

B) Viral or bacterial infections

C) Overconsumption of fiber

D) Lack of physical exercise

Continue reading MCQs related to diarrhea and dehydration For Nursing and HA 2025